Civil Rights Acts – Timeline of Key Laws & Amendments

This page traces the history of the Civil Rights Acts, from Reconstruction through the modern era. Each law expanded (or attempted to expand) protections for equality under the Constitution.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

• First U.S. civil rights law, passed after the Civil War.
• Guaranteed citizenship and equal rights regardless of race.
• Codified in 42 U.S.C. § 1981 (contracts and property rights).

Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act)

• Targeted racial violence and intimidation in the South.
• Created civil remedies against those acting “under color of law” to deprive rights.
• Still forms the basis of 42 U.S.C. § 1983 civil rights lawsuits.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

• Landmark modern civil rights law.
• Prohibited discrimination in employment (Title VII), public accommodations (Title II), and federally funded programs (Title VI).
• Created the EEOC to enforce anti-discrimination law.

Civil Rights Act of 1968 (Fair Housing Act)

• Prohibited housing discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin.
• Later amended to include sex (1974), disability (1988), and family status (1988).

Civil Rights Act of 1991

• Strengthened employee rights under Title VII.
• Allowed jury trials and compensatory/punitive damages for intentional discrimination.
• Clarified burden of proof standards in employment discrimination cases.

Why It Matters Today

The Civil Rights Acts collectively:

Schenck v. United States (1919)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
Charles Schenck was convicted under the Espionage Act for distributing leaflets urging resistance to the military draft during World War I. The Supreme Court upheld his conviction, ruling that free speech could be restricted if it posed a “clear and present danger” to significant government interests, such as wartime recruitment.

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
Benjamin Gitlow, a socialist, was convicted under New York’s criminal anarchy law for publishing a manifesto advocating revolutionary socialism. The Supreme Court upheld his conviction but, for the first time, held that the First Amendment’s free speech protections apply to the states through the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment.

Near v. Minnesota (1931)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
Jay Near published a scandal sheet accusing local officials of corruption. Minnesota tried to shut down his paper under a “public nuisance” law. The Supreme Court struck down the law, ruling that it imposed unconstitutional prior restraint on the press.

3) Why It Mattered
This was the first major case protecting freedom of the press from state censorship. It established that government generally cannot stop publications before they’re printed.

Voting Rights Act – Timeline of Key Laws & Amendments

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 (VRA) is one of the most important civil rights laws in U.S. history. It outlawed discriminatory voting practices and enforced the 15th Amendment. Over time, Congress expanded its protections — but recent court rulings have weakened them.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

• Prohibited literacy tests and other barriers to minority voting.
• Required jurisdictions with histories of discrimination to obtain federal preclearance before changing voting laws (Section 5).
• Authorized federal examiners to oversee elections in problem areas.

1970 Amendments

• Lowered the voting age in federal elections to 18 (later confirmed nationwide by the 26th Amendment).
• Expanded language assistance requirements.

1975 Amendments

• Extended protections to “language minority groups” (Spanish, Native American, Asian American, Alaskan Natives).
• Required bilingual voting materials in covered jurisdictions.

1982 Amendments

• Extended Section 5 preclearance for 25 years.
• Allowed plaintiffs to prove voting discrimination by showing discriminatory “effect,” not just intent.

2006 Reauthorization

• Renewed key provisions (including Section 5) for 25 more years with near-unanimous bipartisan support.

Supreme Court: Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

• Struck down the VRA’s coverage formula (Section 4(b)), effectively disabling preclearance under Section 5.
• After Shelby, states previously under preclearance could change voting laws without federal approval.

Recent Developments

• Congress has considered updates like the John Lewis Voting Rights Advancement Act, but none have passed.
• The VRA’s Section 2 (ban on racial discrimination in voting) remains in effect, though litigation is ongoing in several states.

Why It Matters Today

The Voting Rights Act remains a cornerstone of American democracy. It:

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
A group of students in Des Moines, Iowa, wore black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. School officials suspended them. The Supreme Court ruled that students do not “shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.” The suspensions violated the First Amendment.

Texas v. Johnson (1989)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag during a political protest at the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas. He was convicted under a Texas law banning flag desecration. The Supreme Court struck down the law, ruling that flag burning is protected symbolic speech under the First Amendment.

3) Why It Mattered
This was a landmark affirmation of free speech, holding that the government cannot prohibit expression simply because it is offensive or unpopular.

Lawrence v. Texas (2003)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
Two men were arrested in Texas for engaging in consensual same-sex intimacy under a state sodomy law. The Supreme Court struck down the law, holding that it violated the liberty and privacy rights protected by the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment. The Court explicitly overturned Bowers v. Hardwick (1986).

District of Columbia v. Heller (2008)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
Dick Anthony Heller, a D.C. special police officer, challenged the District’s handgun ban and requirement that firearms in the home be kept nonfunctional. The Supreme Court ruled 5–4 that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess firearms unconnected to service in a militia, particularly for self-defense in the home.