Civil Rights Acts – Timeline of Key Laws & Amendments

This page traces the history of the Civil Rights Acts, from Reconstruction through the modern era. Each law expanded (or attempted to expand) protections for equality under the Constitution.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

• First U.S. civil rights law, passed after the Civil War.
• Guaranteed citizenship and equal rights regardless of race.
• Codified in 42 U.S.C. § 1981 (contracts and property rights).

Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act)

• Targeted racial violence and intimidation in the South.
• Created civil remedies against those acting “under color of law” to deprive rights.
• Still forms the basis of 42 U.S.C. § 1983 civil rights lawsuits.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

• Landmark modern civil rights law.
• Prohibited discrimination in employment (Title VII), public accommodations (Title II), and federally funded programs (Title VI).
• Created the EEOC to enforce anti-discrimination law.

Civil Rights Act of 1968 (Fair Housing Act)

• Prohibited housing discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin.
• Later amended to include sex (1974), disability (1988), and family status (1988).

Civil Rights Act of 1991

• Strengthened employee rights under Title VII.
• Allowed jury trials and compensatory/punitive damages for intentional discrimination.
• Clarified burden of proof standards in employment discrimination cases.

Why It Matters Today

The Civil Rights Acts collectively:

United States v. Cruikshank (1876)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
After the Colfax Massacre in Louisiana, federal charges were brought against white men who killed dozens of Black citizens. The Supreme Court overturned the convictions, holding that the Bill of Rights did not apply to the states and that the 14th Amendment only restricted state governments, not private individuals.

Civil Rights Cases (1883)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
The Supreme Court struck down provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which had outlawed racial discrimination in public accommodations like inns, theaters, and public transport. The Court held that the 14th Amendment only restricts state action, not discrimination by private individuals or businesses.

3) Why It Mattered
This ruling gutted Reconstruction-era civil rights protections and allowed Jim Crow segregation to flourish unchecked for decades.

Labor & Employment Rights – Timeline of Key Acts

U.S. labor and employment law has evolved over decades to protect workers’ rights, expand equality, and balance the power of employers and employees. Below is a timeline of the most impactful laws still shaping the workplace today.

Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA, 1938)

• Established the minimum wage, overtime pay, and child labor protections.
• Codified at 29 U.S.C. § 201 et seq.
• Continues to be amended to adjust wage and hour standards.

Equal Pay Act (1963)

• Amended the FLSA to require equal pay for equal work regardless of sex.
• Foundation for modern pay equity litigation.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII)

• Prohibited employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.
• Created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).

Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA, 1967)

• Prohibited discrimination against workers age 40 and over.
• Still a key protection for older employees.

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA, 1970)

• Established the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
• Required employers to provide workplaces “free from recognized hazards.”

Rehabilitation Act (1973)

• Prohibited discrimination on the basis of disability in federal programs and contractors.
• Precursor to the ADA.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990; amended 2008)

• Prohibited discrimination based on disability in employment, public accommodations, and government services.
• Amended in 2008 to broaden the definition of disability.

Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA, 1993)

• Guaranteed eligible employees up to 12 weeks unpaid, job-protected leave for family or medical reasons.
• Expanded to include military caregiver leave provisions.

Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act (USERRA, 1994)

• Protects the employment and reemployment rights of servicemembers returning from duty.
• Codified at 38 U.S.C. §§ 4301–4335.

Civil Rights Act of 1991

• Strengthened Title VII protections.
• Allowed jury trials and damages for intentional discrimination.

Recent Updates & Continuing Impact

• Wage, overtime, and leave standards continue to evolve through regulation and litigation.
• Debates continue over paid leave, minimum wage, gig work, and workplace discrimination.
• These laws remain the foundation of worker rights in the U.S.

Official Sources

• U.S. Department of Labor – Major Laws
• U.S. Code – Title 29 (Labor)
• EEOC – Employment Discrimination Laws
• USERRA – 38 U.S.C. §§ 4301–4335

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
Black families in several states challenged segregated public schools. The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that “separate but equal” is inherently unequal, striking down racial segregation in public education under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

3) Why It Mattered
This case overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) in the context of public education and became the foundation of the modern civil rights movement. It signaled that state-enforced segregation was unconstitutional.

Cooper v. Aaron (1958)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
After Brown v. Board of Education, Arkansas officials resisted desegregation at Little Rock Central High School. The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that states are bound by Supreme Court decisions and cannot nullify or delay constitutional rights through state action.

3) Why It Mattered
This case established that Supreme Court rulings are the supreme law of the land, binding on all states and officials. It directly confronted efforts to resist desegregation.

Equal Pay Act of 1963

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (29 U.S.C. § 206(d))

2) Why It Was Done
The Act was passed to address wage disparities between men and women by making it illegal for employers to pay unequal wages for substantially equal work.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) established minimum wage and overtime protections but did not address gender-based wage discrimination. This Act amended the FLSA.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (42 U.S.C. § 2000a et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
The Act was passed to end segregation in public places and ban employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It was a response to the Civil Rights Movement and entrenched systemic discrimination.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
While the 14th Amendment and earlier Civil Rights Acts (1866, 1875) provided some protections, enforcement was weak and inconsistent. The 1964 Act gave federal government direct authority to enforce civil rights.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA, 1965)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (20 U.S.C. § 6301 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
ESEA was a cornerstone of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s “War on Poverty.” It aimed to close achievement gaps by providing federal funding to primary and secondary education, particularly for disadvantaged students.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
Education was historically left to states. The Constitution does not explicitly grant federal authority over schools. ESEA marked the first major federal role in K–12 education.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (52 U.S.C. § 10301 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
The Act was enacted to enforce the 15th Amendment, which prohibits racial discrimination in voting. It responded to widespread voter suppression, including literacy tests, poll taxes, and intimidation.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
The 15th Amendment (1870) banned racial discrimination in voting, but enforcement was weak. States, especially in the South, used Jim Crow laws to suppress minority votes. The Act gave federal government direct enforcement power.

Voting Rights Act – Timeline of Key Laws & Amendments

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 (VRA) is one of the most important civil rights laws in U.S. history. It outlawed discriminatory voting practices and enforced the 15th Amendment. Over time, Congress expanded its protections — but recent court rulings have weakened them.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

• Prohibited literacy tests and other barriers to minority voting.
• Required jurisdictions with histories of discrimination to obtain federal preclearance before changing voting laws (Section 5).
• Authorized federal examiners to oversee elections in problem areas.

1970 Amendments

• Lowered the voting age in federal elections to 18 (later confirmed nationwide by the 26th Amendment).
• Expanded language assistance requirements.

1975 Amendments

• Extended protections to “language minority groups” (Spanish, Native American, Asian American, Alaskan Natives).
• Required bilingual voting materials in covered jurisdictions.

1982 Amendments

• Extended Section 5 preclearance for 25 years.
• Allowed plaintiffs to prove voting discrimination by showing discriminatory “effect,” not just intent.

2006 Reauthorization

• Renewed key provisions (including Section 5) for 25 more years with near-unanimous bipartisan support.

Supreme Court: Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

• Struck down the VRA’s coverage formula (Section 4(b)), effectively disabling preclearance under Section 5.
• After Shelby, states previously under preclearance could change voting laws without federal approval.

Recent Developments

• Congress has considered updates like the John Lewis Voting Rights Advancement Act, but none have passed.
• The VRA’s Section 2 (ban on racial discrimination in voting) remains in effect, though litigation is ongoing in several states.

Why It Matters Today

The Voting Rights Act remains a cornerstone of American democracy. It:

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (1966)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (5 U.S.C. § 552)

2) Why It Was Done
FOIA was enacted to guarantee public access to federal agency records, promoting government transparency and accountability.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
The 1946 Administrative Procedure Act had a limited “public information” requirement but lacked enforceable rights. FOIA gave citizens the ability to compel disclosure through courts.

Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) (1967)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (29 U.S.C. § 621 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
The ADEA was enacted to protect workers aged 40 and older from employment discrimination, addressing widespread workplace bias against older employees.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin—but not age. The ADEA filled this gap in employment protections.

Loving v. Virginia (1967)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
Richard and Mildred Loving, an interracial couple, were convicted under Virginia law banning interracial marriage. The Supreme Court unanimously struck down the law, ruling that it violated the Equal Protection Clause and the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment.

3) Why It Mattered
This case ended all race-based legal restrictions on marriage in the United States. It became a cornerstone of civil rights jurisprudence and later informed cases about marriage equality.

Fair Housing Act (1968)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (42 U.S.C. § 3601 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
Enacted just days after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., the Act was designed to end discrimination in housing, addressing systemic barriers to home ownership and rental opportunities for minorities.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
While the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in public accommodations and employment, it did not cover housing. Housing segregation remained deeply entrenched nationwide.

Rehabilitation Act of 1973

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (29 U.S.C. § 701 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
The Act was passed to prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability in programs conducted by federal agencies, programs receiving federal funding, and federal employment. It was the first major U.S. disability rights law.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
Before 1973, no comprehensive protections existed for people with disabilities. The Act expanded civil rights principles to this community, setting the stage for the ADA (1990).

Pregnancy Discrimination Act (1978)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (42 U.S.C. § 2000e(k))

2) Why It Was Done
The Act was passed to amend Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to clarify that discrimination based on pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions constitutes unlawful sex discrimination.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
Before the Act, courts often held that pregnancy discrimination was not covered by Title VII. This law explicitly extended protections to ensure women were not forced out of jobs due to pregnancy.

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

1) Link to the Actual Opinion
Read the U.S. Reports opinion (PDF)

2) Summary of the Opinion
Allan Bakke, a white applicant, challenged the University of California Medical School’s admissions program, which reserved seats for minority applicants. The Supreme Court struck down strict racial quotas as unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause but upheld the use of race as one factor among many in admissions.

Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act (EMTALA, 1986)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (42 U.S.C. § 1395dd)

2) Why It Was Done
EMTALA was enacted to prevent “patient dumping,” where hospitals refused to treat or transferred patients unable to pay. It requires hospitals to provide emergency medical screening and stabilization regardless of insurance or ability to pay.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
Before EMTALA, hospitals often turned away indigent or uninsured patients. While some state laws existed, no comprehensive federal law guaranteed emergency care.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
The ADA was passed to eliminate discrimination against individuals with disabilities and ensure equal opportunity in employment, government services, public accommodations, and telecommunications.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibited disability discrimination in federally funded programs, but not in private employment or public accommodations. The ADA expanded protections to cover nearly all aspects of daily life.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (1990, amended 2004)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
Congress enacted IDEA to ensure children with disabilities have the right to a free appropriate public education (FAPE) tailored to their needs, with access to special education and related services.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
IDEA replaced the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. Court rulings like PARC v. Pennsylvania (1971) and Mills v. Board of Education (1972) had already established constitutional rights to equal educational opportunities for children with disabilities.

Civil Rights Act of 1991

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (Public Law 102–166)

2) Why It Was Done
The Act was passed to strengthen and expand federal civil rights laws, particularly in response to Supreme Court decisions that had narrowed protections against employment discrimination under Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 established foundational protections. However, Supreme Court rulings in the 1980s (e.g., Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio, 1989) limited plaintiffs’ ability to prove discrimination, prompting congressional action.

Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) (1993)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (29 U.S.C. § 2601 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
Congress enacted FMLA to provide eligible employees with job-protected, unpaid leave for family and medical reasons, recognizing the need to balance work demands with family responsibilities.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
Before FMLA, there was no federal requirement for family or medical leave. Some states and employers had policies, but coverage was inconsistent and limited.

Violence Against Women Act (VAWA, 1994; reauthorized 2022)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (34 U.S.C. § 12291 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
VAWA was enacted to address domestic violence, sexual assault, and stalking, creating comprehensive legal protections, victim services, and funding for law enforcement and prevention programs.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
Before VAWA, protections for victims of gender-based violence were scattered and inconsistent across states. The Act created the first major federal framework.

Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act (ADAAA, 2008)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (Public Law 110–325)

2) Why It Was Done
The ADAAA was enacted to restore the broad protections of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 after a series of Supreme Court decisions had narrowed the definition of “disability.”

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
The original ADA protected individuals with disabilities, but rulings such as Sutton v. United Airlines (1999) and Toyota v. Williams (2002) excluded many with chronic illnesses or controlled conditions. The ADAAA explicitly rejected these rulings.

Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) (2008)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (42 U.S.C. § 2000ff et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
GINA was passed to prohibit discrimination in health coverage and employment based on genetic information, addressing concerns raised by advances in genetic testing and research.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
Prior laws such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA, 1996) offered some protections but did not specifically cover genetic data. GINA filled this gap.

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) (2010)

1) Link to the Text of the Act
Read the statute (42 U.S.C. § 18001 et seq.)

2) Why It Was Done
The ACA was enacted to expand access to affordable health insurance, improve quality of care, and reduce healthcare costs. It created health insurance marketplaces, expanded Medicaid, and prohibited insurers from denying coverage for preexisting conditions.

3) Pre-existing Law or Constitutional Rights
Built upon the Social Security Act (Medicare and Medicaid provisions) and existing insurance regulations, but established the first nationwide mandate for health coverage and sweeping insurance reforms.