Welcome to the 535 section — an overview of the United States Congress (the 535 voting members in the House and Senate), how representatives and senators are chosen, how institutional rules shape outcomes, and where reform debates are focused.
This section covers:
- How members of the House and Senate are elected and apportioned.
- The 17th Amendment and the shift to direct election of senators.
- The filibuster: its history, how it works today, and why it is not a constitutional provision.
- How sub-committees can act as barriers to policy and become venues for entrenched interests.
Look at the pages below to read short, evidence-based explainers and key sources.
The 17th Amendment
The 17th Amendment (ratified 1913) shifted the election of U.S. Senators from state legislatures to direct popular vote. This was a major change in federal-state relations and the democratic franchise.
Key effects:
- Increased direct accountability of senators to voters rather than state legislatures.
- Reduced the influence of state political machines and legislative bargaining on Senate composition.
- Altered the balance of state-versus-federal influence in national lawmaking.
Critical perspective on federalism:
Many scholars and critics argue the 17th Amendment substantially weakened American federalism. Prior to 1913, state legislatures selected senators, which created an institutional check: states could influence national policy through their legislative choices. By transferring that selection power to the nationwide electorate, the amendment:
Filibuster
The filibuster is a Senate rule and practice that allows extended debate and — in its modern form — requires a supermajority (usually 60 votes) to invoke cloture and end debate on most legislation. It is not a provision in the Constitution; rather, it is a Senate-created rule that evolved over time.
Why it matters:
- The filibuster enables a minority of senators to block legislation the majority supports.
- Its procedural origins date to changes in Senate rules in the 19th century; it was neither contemplated nor mandated by the Constitution.
- The United States is unusual among democracies for giving such a persistent blocking tool to a minority in a unitary legislative chamber’s upper house.
History and key dates
Sub-committees
Sub-committees are smaller groups within congressional committees that focus on specific areas of legislation. They play a crucial role in shaping policy and can significantly influence the legislative process.
This page will discuss:
- The structure and function of sub-committees.
- How they can act as barriers to policy.
- The interests that may be represented within sub-committees.
How sub-committees can fail in practice
Originally designed to distribute workload and provide subject-matter focus, congressional sub-committees were intended to make legislating manageable and to surface expert testimony. In practice, critics argue they frequently become: